Gender and Leadership: Literature Review

Gender and Leadership Literature Review 1. Introduction Leadership theories and literature describe what leaders should do and on the other hand literature also exists on what leaders actually do, the former are prescriptive and the latter are descriptive (Bratton et al; 2005). Leadership style is a relatively consistent set of behaviours that characterise a leader (DuBrin; 1995). The main leadership theories encompass the trait, behaviour, contingency, power influence, and gender influence and exchange leadership perspectives. This paper focuses on transformational leadership and thus will detail the theory underpinning transformational leadership vis a vis gender differences in leadership. A brief discussion on Leadership effectiveness as it relates to gender and Leadership styles will also be shown. In a study of gender and leadership styles it is important to highlight the deeper foundations that have a bearing on why men and women may lead differently. One of those causes has been found to be culture; a brief review of this construct and its’ bearing on gender has also been outlined in this section. . 2Gender and Leadership Swanepoel et al (2003) define gender as a â€Å"demographic factor that may influence Human Resources Management in organisations and which can lead to similar problems of discrimination in the workplace†. DuBrin (1995) state that the terms sex and gender arouse controversy both scientifically and politically. He further states that the term gender refers to perception s about the differences among males and females whilst sex differences refer to actual tangible differences such as the fact that the mean height of men is greater than that of women. The terms gender and sex are, however, often used interchangeably. Task and interpersonal styles in leadership research are obviously relevant to gender because of the stereotypes people have about sex differences in these aspects of behaviour (Ashmore, Del Boca, & Wohlers, 1986; Eagly & Steffen, 1984). Men are believed to be more self-assertive and motivated to control their environment (e. g. , more aggressive, independent, self-sufficient, forceful, and dominant). In contrast, women are believed to be more selfless and concerned with others (e. . , more kind, helpful, understanding, warm, sympathetic, and aware of others' feelings). Although democratic versus autocratic style is a different (and narrower) aspect of leader behaviour than task-oriented and interpersonally oriented styles (see Bass, 1981), the democratic- autocratic dimension also relates to gender stereotypes, because one component of these stereotypes is that men are relatively dominant and controlling (i. e. , mor e autocratic and directive than women. Bratton et al (2005) highlight a study conducted by Schein (1975) who extended the gender issue in Leadership further with the results confirming that to both the male and female managers who participated in the study; being a successful manager meant being masculine in terms of stereotypical behaviours (Bratton et al, 2005). Wajcman in Bratton, Grint and Nelson stated, â€Å"Some leadership behaviours are interpreted differently depending on the gender of the leader. For example, a particular action seen as â€Å"firm† when displayed by a man (e. , banging the table top with the hand) might be termed â€Å"hysterical† when displayed by a woman. † (Bratton et al; 189). Women are said to find participative management more natural than men because they feel more comfortable interacting with people and that their natural sensitivity encourages group members to participate in decision- making (Dubrin; 1995). Yet as women move up the corporate ladder, their identifica tion with the male model of corporate success becomes important and may even reject the few feminine traits that they may earlier have endorsed. Bass (1998) in his review of studies other than his own concludes that there is no consistent pattern of male-female differences in leadership styles. Modern theory proposes that women lead differently than men (Bratton et al; 2005). This theory tends to promote the idea that women have the characteristics and skill that are necessary for effective leadership and that these skills and characteristics include a more interactional leadership style, the ability to build consensus, a tendency to empower others, and a greater ability to nurture others (Bratton et al; 2005). Robbins (date) in Swanepoel et al (2003) points out that the similarities between women and men tend to outweigh the differences, and that these differences suggest that men are comfortable with a directive style while female managers prefer a democratic style (Swanepoel et al; 2003). The gender perspective argues that women leaders have an interactive, people centered, participative management style. Women leaders are associated with consensus building and power sharing. Views in favour of the gender perspective advocate for equal opportunities at the work place; full utilization of women to utilize available human resources; acknowledgement of the â€Å"special contribution† women can make the work place due to their leadership style and alternate approaches to situations (Bratton, et al; 2005). Swanepoel et al (2003) state that in general women follow a transformational leadership style, which emphasises followers, consensus, and the use of charisma, personal reference and personal contact to enhance interpersonal relations and to influence followers. Men, however prefer a more direct style where job performance is seen as transactional and they also tend to use formal position, power and authority to control people. To tackle the question of whether men and women have different leadership styles, Eagly and Johnson conducted a 1990 review of leadership studies. Notably, although lab studies viewed women as both interpersonally oriented and democratic and men to be both task-oriented and autocratic, field studies indicated a difference on only one of those dimensions: The omen were found to be more democratic, encouraging participation, and the men were more autocratic, directing performance. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss A 2003 meta-analysis extended those results and indicated that women were slightly more likely than men to have the transformational leadership style. Women also appeared to reward good performance more than men, a very positive part of transactional leadership. Men were more likely to criticize subo rdinates and be less hands-on, styles found to be ineffective. http: www. psychologymatters. rg/womanboss. However, psychologists caution against concluding that women or men have some sort of natural or inherent leadership style. There is a possibility that women, knowing how negatively people respond to â€Å"bossy† women, soften their approach. Additionally, the research shows only averages, or tendencies, for each sex. Some men will have more â€Å"feminine† management styles; some women will have more â€Å"masculine† management styles. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eagly's advice is to be careful about the power of perception. She says that even though the research found some differences in leadership style, â€Å"the sex differences are small because the leader role itself carries a lot of weight in determining people's behaviour. † She concludes that women are in some senses better leaders than men but suffer the disadvantage of leadership roles having a masculine image, especially in some settings and at higher levels. Stripping organizational leadership of its masculine aura would allow psychologists to get a clearer picture of any true differences between men and women. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Eagly and Johnson highlighted the following summaries from their review;† The preponderance of available evidence is that no consistently clear pattern of differences can be discerned in the supervisory style of female as compared to male leaders† (Bass, 198 l, p. 499);†There is as yet no research evidence that makes a case for sex differences in either leadership aptitude or style† (Kanter, 1977a, p. 199); â€Å"In general, comparative research indicates that there are few differences in the leadership styles of female and male designated leaders† (Bartol & Martin, 1986, 19. 278). However Quantitative reviews of this research have established the presence rather than the absence of overall sex differences (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Wood, in press; Hall, 1984). These differences, although typically not large, tend to be comparable in magnitude to most other findings reported in social psychological research. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) 3. 3 Cultural Dimension – the link to gender Several theories have been put forward to account for gender differences including biological differences, differences in early childhood and the fulfilment of culturally prescribed gender role expectations. Thomas and Bendixen (2000) refer to Thomas and Ely (1996) who capture the essence of cultural issues in organisations when they state that employees make choices at work based on their cultural background (Thomas and Bendixen; 2000). It is thus important for organisations to understand these values that employees bring into the workplace (Thomas and Bendixen; 2000). Thomas and Bendexin (2000) also lean on Trompenaars (1993) who identified different levels of culture, noting that national culture is at the highest level whilst organisational culture is at the next level down in the hierarchy of culture. Gender related differences in leadership styles may have a foundation in culture. Schein (1990) defines organisational culture as â€Å"a pattern of basic assumptions, invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore is to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems. † (Schein, 1990; 111). He further identifies three levels at which culture manifests itself as observable artefacts, values, and basic underlying assumptions (Schein, 1990). Observable artefacts are things that one sees or feels upon entering an organisation. This includes the dress code, the physical layout, the smell and feel of the place to the more tangible things such as the annual reports and company records (Schein, 1990). â€Å"Through interviews, questionnaires, or survey instruments one can study a culture’s espoused and documented values, norms, ideologies, charters, and philosophies. (Schein, 1990; 112). More direct questioning can reveal the more the underlying assumptions, which â€Å"determine perceptions, thought processes, feelings and behaviour† (Schein, 1990; 112) For Edgar Schein (1985) the transformation that matters is a change in the corporate culture. What do leaders pay attention to, measure, and control sends symbolic signals to the rest of the corporate culture. Ho fstede is a central figure in the development of literature on the cultural construct in leadership (Dickson, Hartog & Mitchelson; 2003). He advances the idea that cultural differences are initially encountered as differences in shared values with values being defined as tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others (Dickson et al; 2003). Hofstede (1980,2001) described initially four culture dimensions; individualism-collectivism; masculinity-femininity; uncertainty avoidance; and power distance and a fifth dimension, future orientation was added in later work (Dickson et al; 2003). Power distance is â€Å"the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally†. Hofstede (in Dickson, Harthog & Mitchelson, 2003, pg 737). Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a society feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (Dickson et al p. 740). Individualism versus collectivism ranges from societies in which the ties between individuals are â€Å"loose† and people are expected to take care of themselves and close family only to societies that are â€Å"tight† where people expect their â€Å"in-group to look after them and they do so in return (Dickson, et al. 2003). Masculinity versus femininity ranges from societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct to societies in which social gender roles overlap (Dickson, et al. ; 2003). This dimension has a direct bearing on gender issues in that societal roles determine gender roles and these ultimately have a bearing on the leadership style that one practices, In her exploration of African management van der Colff (2003) uses the African tree concept advanced by Mbigi (1996). According to this concept the main stem underpinning all the most important values of African History can be traced through ubuntu, which is the key to all African values and involves collectivism (van der Colff; 2003). â€Å"Traditionally African leadership is built on participation, responsibility and spiritual authority†. (van der Colff; 2003,258). Nussbaum (1996) in van der Colff (2003) is quoted as saying that African leadership requires transparency, accountability and legitimacy. The only way they can be legitimate is to be trustworthy themselves before they can expect trust from employees (van der Colff; 2003). Bass (1997) has argued that transformational leadership is universally applicable. He proposed, that regardless of culture, transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the group or organization, followers become motivated to expend greater effort than would would usually be expected. While acknowledging the universality of transformational leadership, Bass recognized that cultural differences will contribute to differences at the individual level of measurement. He stated â€Å"Variation occurs because the same concepts may contain specific thought processes, beliefs, implicit understandings, or behaviors in one culture not another† (p. 132). This raises the question of the universality of gender differences in transformational leadership. Although there have been several studies on gender differences in America, unknown is the extent that these findings are replicated in other cultures. This study will show some findings of transformational leadership with a Zimbabwean sample. 3. 4. Transformational Leadership theory From a broad perspective, leadership styles can be transformational and transactional; a transformational leadership style is one that seeks to influence behaviour through inspirational and motivational means. Transactional leadership styles use contingency factors such as rewards and punishment to influence and affect behaviour (Densten, Gray & Sarros, 2002). The transactional leadership theories emphasise transactions between leaders and their followers. Transactional leaders get things done by giving contingent rewards such as recognition and pay increases. These leaders usually manage by exception to monitor performance and take corrective action to remedy poor performance. They motivate followers by clarifying role and task requirements (Swanepoel; 2003). Transformational leadership was first coined by Burns (1978) and further developed by Bass (1985, 1998) and Yammarino & Bass, (1990) with research accumulating in the area over the past fourteen years. Transformational leadership is defined in terms of four inter-related factors: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individual consideration. Taken together, these sub-types are believed to represent the most effective attitudes and behaviours a leader can have. (Panopoulos; 1998). The transformational characteristic of idealised influence is based on earlier conceptualisations of charisma (e. g. House, 1977). The charismatic leader is able to inspire respect and higher order motivation in followers. The leader is able to communicate a sense of power and confidence in higher values and beliefs. The charismatic leader possesses a clear set of idealised qualities with which followers might wish to be associated (Panapoulos; 1998). The leader who provides inspirational motivation to followers is likely to speak optimistically about the future, articulating a compelling vision of what must be achieved. He motivates followers by his/her own enthusiasm. The leader is therefore not merely a distant charismatic source of referent power but is also able to directly and effectively translate his/her own enthusiasm to followers (Panapoulos; 1998). The leader must also provide intellectual stimulation to followers. In providing intellectual stimulation, the leader is said to orient ollowers to awareness of problems, to their own thoughts and imagination, and to the recognition of their beliefs and values (Yammarino & Bass, 1990 in Panapoulos; 1998). Furthermore, by providing an intellectually stimulating environment, transformational leaders are able to foster the development of creative solutions to problems, which stand in the way of organisational goal attainment. Panapoulos (1998) states that from a humanistic persp ective, the most outstanding component of transformational leadership is the leader’s individualised consideration of his/her followers. According to Bass and his colleagues (Yammarino, Spangler & Bass, 1993 in Panapoulos; 1998), a leader’s use of individual consideration is a crucial element in followers’ achievement of their full potential through a close consideration of their developmental needs. In providing individual consideration, the leader is not only aware of and sensitive to the current needs of followers, but is also aiming to elevate those needs to a higher level (in combination with the use of the other factors of transformational leadership). This can be done by coaching and mentoring, as well as by setting examples and tasks, which are developmentally consistent with the needs of each individual (Panapoulos; 1998). Gender differences in transformational leadership – A review of past research A number of authors have speculated on possible gender differences in the use of transformational leadership (e. g. , Avolio & Bass, 1988; Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995), however, there has been a notable lack of evidence (Bass & Avolio, 1994). Bass contends there are none. Yet, other studies show that women develop a â€Å"feminine style of leadership,† which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a â€Å"masculine style of leadership†, which is dominating and task- oriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). In a study of 345 metropolitan branch managers Carless (1998) found that: Female managers are more likely than male managers to report that they take an interest in the personal needs of their staff, encourage self-development, use participative decision-making, give feedback and publicly recognize team achievements. In summary, female managers report they use more interpersonal-oriented leadership behaviors compared to male managers (Carless, 1998). The review by Eagly and Johnson was the first systematic and comprehensive analysis of gender differences in leadership. Earlier reviews (e. g. , Bartol & Martin, 1986; Dobbins & Platz, 1986) were based on limited samples and were criticized because they failed to specify the selection criteria for inclusion in the review. Eagly and Johnson's (1990) meta-analysis of gender differences in leadership revealed mixed findings. An analysis of task-oriented style and interpersonal oriented style showed that women and men did not differ on these dimensions in organizational studies. Differences were noted for studies in which the sample did not formally hold a leadership position (experimental and assessment studies). On the other hand, significant gender differences were reported in the use of democratic leadership in organizational, experimental and assessment studies. Women used a more participative and inclusive style of leadership and men were more likely to use a directive, controlling style. Carless, 1998). Studies which have used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ; Bass, 1985b; Avolio, et al. , 1995) to examine gender differences in leadership style have reported conflicting findings. Bass, Avolio and Atwater (1996) examined gender differences in leader behaviour with three samples. Sample I consisted of 79 female and 150 male upper-level leaders who worked for American hi-tec, Fortune 50 f irms. Subordinate ratings of leadership (N = 877) indicated that female leaders were rated higher on all transformational leader behaviors compared to male leaders. These findings are consistent with an earlier study of leaders in the Roman Catholic church (Druskat, 1994). Sample 2, consisted of first-level supervisors employed by a number of organizations, 38 of the leaders were female and 58 were male. Subordinates (N = 271) observed no gender differences for the subscales of Intellectual Stimulation and Inspirational Motivation, however, females were reported as higher on the subscales of Charisma and Individual Consideration. Sample 2 findings were consistent with an earlier study reported by Bass and Avolio (1994). Generally, in studies that report significant differences between females and males the effect sizes are very small and it is therefore argued that there is no practical differences between female and male leaders (Yammarino, Dubinsky, Comer & Jolson, 1997). In the third sample of 154 female leaders and 131 male leaders who worked for nonprofitable organizations (e. g. health care), subordinates (N = 913) reported no differences in the leader behavior of females and male leaders. Similary, Komives (1991) found no difference between female and male manager self-ratings of transformational leadership, with the exception of Intellectual Stimulation; women managers were found to be significantly higher than their male counterparts(Carless,1998). According to the gender-centred perspective, individual attributes vary according to their gender (Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Hennig & Jardin, 1977; Loden, 1985). This approach proposes that, women develop a feminine style of leadership, which is characterized by caring and nurturance, and men adopt a masculine style of leadership, which is dominating and taskoriented (Eagly, Makhijani, & Klonsky, 1992). Similarly, the social-role theory (Eagly, 1987) proposes that individuals behave in accordance with societal expectations about their gender role. Through the socialization process, people learn to conform to cultural expectations about their gender role. The feminine model of leadership includes typical transformational leadership behaviors, for example, participatory decision-making, collaboration and quality interpersonal relationships between leader and subordinate (Eagly, Karau, Miner & Johnson, 1994; Helgesen, 1990; Loden, 1985). Hence, it could be expected that females and males may differ in their use of certain transformational leadership behaviors(Carless,1998). The structural perspective suggests that the organizational role the individual occupies is more important then the gender of the individual (Kanter, 1977). Within organizations clear guidelines exist for the expected performance of managers, hence the major issue for managers is meeting the organization's expectations regarding effective management performance, not conforming to culturally defined gender roles. Assuming female and male managers occupy the same role within an organization and have equivalent access to status and power there is no reason to expect gender differences in leadership styles (Eagly, Karau, & Makhijani, 1995). This suggests that when examining gender differences in leadership behavior it is important to compare women and men who occupy the same position in the organization and are at the same level in the organizational hierarchy. (Carless ,1998). Eagly and her colleagues (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Eagly, et al. , 1995) suggest that gender differences vary according to the extent of gender congeniality. Gender congeniality is described as the â€Å"fit between gender roles and particular leadership roles† (Eagley, et al. , 1995, p. 29). It reflects an individual's interest in a specific leadership role and appraisal of their competence to perform that role. In some organizations, such as the military, leadership positions are defined in more masculine terms than feminine. Thus, leadership positions in these organizations would be described as congenial to men. In others, such as education and nursing, leadership is defined in more feminine ways and therefore could be described as conge nial to women(Carless, 1998). 3. 5Effective Leadership Since women began to climb the corporate ladder, authorities have asked if they have what it takes to lead groups and organizations. According to the research, while men and women are equally effective in some settings, more often effectiveness depends on the fit between the setting and management gender. For example, women's typically more mentoring, coaching style is more favorably received in female-dominated professions; men's more typically â€Å"command and control† style is well received in male-dominated professions. http: www. sychologymatters. org/womanboss . In essence therefore, all things being equal, men and women are equally effective. But given varied work settings and a workplace whose top managers are still more likely to be male, all things rarely are equal. For example, women are slightly more likely to be â€Å"transformational† leaders, serving as role models, helping employees develop their skills, and motivating them to be dedicated and creative. That approach may actually be more effective in today's less hierarchical organizations. But not all workplaces are alike: The participatory style may backfire in traditional male settings such as the military or organized sports. Conversely, the command-and-control style more typical of men may backfire in a social-service agency or retail outlet. (http:www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) A 1995 review by Alice Eagly, PhD, Steven Karau, PhD and Mona Makhijani, PhD, of more than 80 different studies found that when aggregated over the organizational and laboratory experimental studies in the sample, male and female leaders were equally effective. The leaders or managers assessed in the studies were typically first-level or first-line supervisors, with a strong minority of studies looking at mid-level managers or managers of mixed or unknown levels. The analysis also showed that women were more effective leaders in female-dominated or female-oriented settings, and that men were more effective leaders in male-dominated or male-oriented settings. Thus working in a leadership role congruent with one's gender gives the perception that one is more effective. (http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Theories of transformational leadership (e. . , Bass, 1985a; Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Kouzes & Posner, 1987; Sashkin & Burke; 1990; Trice & Beyer, 1986) have focused on identifying a range of leadership behaviors which contribute to effective performance. Although these theories differ in the leadership behaviors they distinguish, there exists a number of common themes. Transformational leaders articulate a vision, use lateral or non traditional thinking, encourage individual development, give regular feedback, use participative decision-making, and promote a cooperative and trusting work environment. http: www. psychologymatters. org/womanboss) Densten, et al. ; (2002) emphasise that successful leaders are able to build a strong corporate culture, are truth-tellers, can see the invisible, that is, spot potential winners or identify trends before their rivals or customers, are fast learners and good communicators. Leaders are expected to anticipate future events before they occur and have a vision to overcome uncertainties. Managers on the other hand are expected to run current operations effectively and efficiently (Bratton, et al. ; 2005). Darling in Swanepoel, Erasmus et al argues â€Å"a real test of successful leadership in management lies in giving, to the greatest extent possible, opportunities to others within the situational context of the firm. One does not have to be brilliant to be a good leader, but you have to understand people- how they feel, what makes them tick, and the most effective ways to influence them. †(Swanepoel, Erasmus, Van Wyk, Schenk; 359) DuBrin (1995) state that in order to be a leader one has to make a difference and to facilitate positive changes. They further state that the common characteristic of effective leaders is their ability to inspire and stimulate others to achieve worthwhile goals (Dubrin; 1995). Drucker (2004) outlines eight practices followed by effective executives. He says that they ask, â€Å"What needs to be done? † and â€Å"What is right for the enterprise†. Effective executives also develop action plans, they take responsibility for decisions and communicating, focus on opportunities rather than problems, run productive meetings and focus on â€Å"we† rather than â€Å"I† (Drucker; 2004). Drucker (2004) further explains that the first two practices gives them the knowledge they need, the next four help to convert this knowledge to effective action and the last two ensure that the whole organization feels responsible and accountable. Researchers are especially interested in the question of whether a management style more associated with women – a less authoritarian, more nurturing approach – will â€Å"click† as the workplace generally shifts to more team-oriented structures that thrive under a less directive approach. 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Parental Influence On Children s Cognitive Development

Abstract: The following literature review contains different articles that support how relevant is parental influence on their children’s cognitive development. Since a child is born, parents play such an important role in their children’s cognitive development, that failing at doing the proper steps of assuring a correct development in their children affects their children’s academic success in life. Parents could make their children’s future goals achievable or almost impossible, and trace the success of their descendants. Therefore, with the support of this research, parents will have the necessary information to correctly influence their children, to ensure their correct and highest cognitive development possible. Introduction A person’s cognitive development starts when she or he is developing in the womb and continues through life. Nevertheless, how correctly and completely it happens depends on the person’s parents. Therefore, all parents should acknowledge the relevance of their influence in the cognitive development of their children. To reassure this important aspect, parents should know how important it is to follow the right steps. The discussed steps to follow are a correct prenatal care, proper infant nutrition, the use of the right brain stimulation soon after the baby is born, and parent involvement in school. Parental influence is related to the cognitive development of children, and a high cognitive development is guaranteed byShow MoreRelatedHow Divorce Affects A Child s Development Essay888 Words   |  4 Pagestoday s society, divorce or remarriage rate has been growing rapidly. Divorces is a legal action between married people that is on longer together. Over the last twenty-five years, several studies has indicated that divorce process may affect family characteristics and most especially children s cognitive performance. Divorce changes children s lives through parental emotion and behavior. Divorce may also increase the risk of negative outcomes for younger and older children. Children from infantRead MoreHow Divorce Affects A Child s Development Essay887 Words   |  4 Pagestoday s society, divorce or remarriage rate has been growing rapidly. Divorces is a legal action between married people that is on longer together. Over the last twenty-five years, several studies has indicated that divorce process may affect family characteristics and most especially children s cognitive performance. Divorce changes children s lives through parental emotion and behavior. Divorce may also increase the risk of negative outcomes for younger and older children. Children from infantRead MoreNonparental Child Care and Its Impact on Child Developme nt1382 Words   |  6 PagesChild Development LaTonya W. Boyd SOC 312 Instructor Steven Peters 11/28/11 The last century has brought about an increase in the female working populations. Included in this population are mothers who previously provided care for their pre-school aged children. Because of this drastic change, the need for non parental child care has also increased. In this paper, I will discuss the three types of non parental child care and their influence on the psychological, social and cognitive developmentRead MoreChildrens Psychological Adjustment to Entry into Kindergarten1325 Words   |  6 Pageschildhood development occurs within the multiple contexts of the home, the school, and the neighborhood, and aspects of these environments can contribute to the development of adjustment problems (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). A child’s psychological adjustment to entry into school for the first time can have a significant impact on the level of success achieved later in life. Children rated higher in school adjustment by their elementary school teachers, as a result of improved cognitive development, showedRead MoreEnvironmental Factors That Affect Intelligence995 Words   |  4 Pageselements or not. The other experts believe that intelligence is a complex result of environmental factors combined, and can not be affected in the early childhood. This essay will argue that environmental factors can affect intelligence because of the influence of prenatal factors, nutrition, and education. One reason that intelligence can be influenced by environmental factors is the prenatal factor. The negative effects on negative intake will change the body condition, especially in the pregnancy stageRead MoreChildren of Divorce Essay655 Words   |  3 PagesUniversity ENGL 135 Summary Prewriting Theme: Family Topic: Children of Divorce Title: Consequences of parental divorce for child development. Hyun Sik Kim is likely against too much government influence on schools and feels that government control is detrimental. Intended audience: The American Sociological Review (ASR) publishes original (not previously published) works of interest to the discipline in general, new theoretical developments, results of qualitative or quantitative research that advanceRead MoreAn Exploration Of Parental Encouragement And Children s Prosocial Tendencies1693 Words   |  7 PagesAn Exploration of Parental Encouragement and Children’s Prosocial Tendencies in a Chinese Context Introduction Many studies in recent years have shown that there are differences between the Western and Eastern parental styles and education systems. Numerous studies have explored how different education styles can affect children’s academic performance. 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Based on the findings, the authors concluded that there were some negativeRead MoreThe Effects of Child Poverty on Their Cognitive and Social Development1706 Words   |  7 PagesThe Effects of Poverty on Children’s Cognitive and Social Development PSYC318 Sheehan Gilbert-Burne 6136739 Word Count: 1650 Question 2: Discuss the effects of poverty on children’s cognitive and social development and the extent to which effects might extend into adulthood Poverty is a global issue that has been at the forefront of economic debate for over a century. Left wing politicians and anti-poverty organisations around the world still adamantly fight for aRead MoreChildren s Academic Achievement, And The Mediation Role Of Self Regulated Learning850 Words   |  4 PagesThe present study aimed to investigate parental involvement as a possible mechanism linking children s academic achievement, and the mediation role of self-regulated learning. In line with earlier findings, the results of this study showed parental involvement is positively linked to children s academic achievement. More important, self-regulated learning fully mediated the relation between parental involvement and children’s academic achievement. To be more specific, the motivation orientation

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The Relationship Between Anxiety and Stuttering in...

What is the relationship between anxiety levels and stuttering in adolescents? The answer is still unclear. Many researchers have attempted to find out whether stuttering causes anxiety or if it is vice versa. Adolescence is a very emotional time, in which teens try to fit in and create their own identity and are experiencing who they want to become. Having a speech problem only makes the phase of adolescence the more stressing and difficult. That is why I wanted to see if adolescents who stutter have higher anxiety levels than fluent adolescents. One thing that has been proven however, is that anxiety levels in adolescents seem to be higher when the stuttering adolescents has had treatment for the disorder. This paper will review the†¦show more content†¦This type of anxiety occurs when an anticipated threat is going to occur. Individuals with this disorder tend to view the world as a dangerous and threatening place. These individuals tend to worry more than most people and feel inappropriately threatened by several things in the environment. On the other hand, state anxiety is a temporary uncomfortable experience that occurs when a person feels threatened by a situation ( ). The study obtained a conversational speech sample, of a minimum of 1,000 syllables, from the stuttering participants to measure stuttering severity. These were then rated by two final year speech language pathologist students from Curtin University of Technology. To determine what type of stuttering the participants had, the research had two stutter types: participants who had repetitions (collapsing across word and part-word repetitions), or prolongations/blocks by using the program Praat. The results indicated that there was no association between anxiety and stuttering severity and typography. However, the participants who stutter had significantly higher scores in the state and trait anxiety measure, than the control group. Davis, Shisca, Howell (2007) aimed to find whether young children and adolescents who persist in their stutter show differences in, trait and state anxiety compared with people who have recovered from their stuttering and a control group. The participants were 54Show MoreRelatedStuttering Is A Communication Disorder That Involuntary Effects The Fluency Of Speech1479 Words   |  6 PagesStuttering Stuttering is a communication disorder that involuntary effects the fluency of speech. Disfluencies in speech include both â€Å"nonstuttered† and â€Å"stuttered† disfluencies. â€Å"Nonstuttered† disfluencies include interjections, revisions, phrase repetitions, and other. Everyone produces disfluencies in their speech at times making â€Å"nonstuttered† disfluencies more typical in speech. â€Å"Stuttered† disfluencies are less typical and include word repetitions, sound/syllable repetitions, prolongationsRead MoreDomestic Violence and Social Problems1268 Words   |  6 PagesDomestic violence is a devastating social problem that impacts every sector of our population. Domestic violence is a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over another intimate partner(USDOJ,2012). Domestic violence can be physical, economic, emotional, sexual, or psychological. Physical domestic violence is an attempt to impose physical injury such as grabbing, slapping, hitting, biting, etc. Physical violence can alsoRead MoreAcademic Abilities of Children with Selective Mutism1603 Words   |  7 Pages Development Research Academic Abilities of Children with Selective Mutism Children with selective mutism suffer from anxiety and the inability to speak in certain social situations. One very common social situation that all children face is in the classroom, with teachers and classmates. This situation is often the very first social situation that children are without their parents. This may have a correspondence to the act the selective mutism often emerges in preschool years (Cunningham, McHolmRead MoreAdolescence Is A Special Stage Of Development1685 Words   |  7 PagesHaving a baby is a huge change and bring huge responsibilities to future parents and to all the people around them.The best age to decide to having a baby is between the age of 24-36, when the future parents are mature enough to deal with this. This is the perfect age to get pregnant because the future parents at this age must have a good educational level and any of them have their college degree. Parents whom use drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, heroin, alcohol, etc must find med ical help, orRead MoreDomestic Violence and Spousal Abuse2094 Words   |  9 Pageshusband, which is known as intimate partner violence. It is also known as spousal abuse or domestic violence. Intimate partner abuse/violence is when a person in a relationship, whether married, sexually intimate, or cohabiting, and is being abused or treated in a violent way. The importance of IPV is that it happens to often in relationships, whether married, sexually intimate, or cohabiting. IPV abuse is very common in the United States, and many couples often experience at the least some form of abuseRead MoreDomestic Violence Essay4463 Words   |  18 PagesExecutive Summary The question of why men or women abuse and why men and women are reluctant to end abusive relationships may seem abstract, but theories have important implications how to understand the problem (Sampson, 2006). â€Å"An ecological perspective conceptualizes violence as a complex problem rooted in the interactions among various factors at the individual, family and community/societal levels of an individual’s environment (WHO, 2002). Learned helplessness has been applied toRead MoreFactors That Affect the Communication Skills of Criminology Students9253 Words   |  38 PagesCHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND Introduction Communication is the art of conversation between two or more persons by means of speaking, writing or using a common system of signs or expression. It requires training and experience to communicate well with other people. On the other hand, the act of communication involves verbal, non- verbal and para- verbal components where these components refer to the content of the message conveyed, the choice and arrangement of words, the messageRead MoreWhy Does a Lot of Students Feel Sleepy During Class Hours?6330 Words   |  26 Pagesskipped classes. All of these are common symptoms visible in high schools across the country. More specifically, the loss of REM sleep (rapid eye movement) may result in memory loss, a decline in information processing, increased irritability and anxiety, decreased socialization and humor, hypersexuality, mental fatigue, decrease in creativity, and a decline in the ability to handle complex tasks. And with consistent lack of sleep, the effects become more s erious. The long-term consequences can rangeRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesPerception? 166 Factors That Influence Perception 167 165 Person Perception: Making Judgments About Others 168 Attribution Theory 168 †¢ Common Shortcuts in Judging Others 170 †¢ Specific Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations 173 The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision Making 174 Decision Making in Organizations 175 The Rational Model, Bounded Rationality, and Intuition 175 †¢ Common Biases and Errors in Decision Making 177 Influences on Decision Making: Individual Differences and

Don Juan Analysis Essay Example For Students

Don Juan Analysis Essay A monologue from the play by Moliere NOTE: This monologue is reprinted from The Dramatic Works of Moliere, Vol. II. Ed. Charles Heron Wall. London: George Bell Sons, 1898. SGANARELLE: If you knew the man as I do, you would find it no hard matter to believe. I have no proof as yet. You know that I was ordered to start before him, and we have had no talk together since his arrival; but it is as a kind of warning that I tell you, inter nos, that you see in Don Juan, my master, one of the greatest scoundrels that ever trod the earth; a madman, a dog, a demon, a Turk, a heretic who believes neither in heaven, saints, God, nor devil; who spends his life like a regular brute, an epicurean hog; a true Sardanapalus, who shuts up his ears against all the admonitions that can be made to him, and who laughs at everything we believe in. You say that he has married your mistress; believe me, in order to satisfy his passion, he would have done more, and married along with her not only yourself, but her dog and her cat into the bargain. A marriage is nothing to him: it is the grand snare he makes use of to catch the fair sex. He is a wholesale marriage-monger; gentlew omen, young girls, middle-class women, peasant lasses, nothing is either too hot or too cold for him; and if I were to tell you the names of all those he has married in different places, the chapter would last from now till midnight. You seem surprised, and you grow pale; yet this is but a mere outline of the man, and to make a finished portrait we should require many more vigorous touches. Let it be sufficient that the wrath of Heaven must sooner or later make an end of him. He cannot escape; and it would be better for me to belong to the devil than to him. I am the witness of so much evil that I could wish him to be I dont know where. But if a great lord is also a wicked man, it is a terrible thing. I must be faithful to him, whatever I may think; in me fear takes the place of zeal, curbs my feelings, and often compels me to applaud what I most detest. Here he is, coming for a walk in this palace; let us part. But, listen: I have told you this in all frankness, and it has slipped rather quickly out of my mouth; but, if anything of what I have said should reach his ears, I would stoutly maintain that you have told a lie.

Never Give All the Heart

Introduction The poem, Never Give All the Heart, by W. B. Yeats appears to elaborate on the necessity of being more reserved when it comes to love wherein instead of giving it your all you have to keep something back.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Never Give All the Heart specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This is based on the various verses which place a significant emphasis on the potential repercussions of â€Å"giving your all† when it comes to love resulting in the undue heartbreak and hardship. The essence of the poem is that of a story of a man that has loved so much and so deeply that when his love was not returned or was even unrequited he fell into despair. Surface Story The story itself seemingly describes a lesson learned out of heartbreak wherein a person became so invested into loving someone that they did not realize until the bitter end that the person they loved did not love them in the sa me way resulting in heartbreak and sorrow. Overall, it can be seen that poem itself adheres to the traditional verse form of poetry where there is a consistent meter pattern (i.e. AA, BB) and utilizes a rhyming pattern that is not evident until the third verse. The content though is nevertheless crisp and decidedly modern. During the introductory portion of the poem, readers are introduced to the concept of keeping something back when falling in love. The author combines words such as women, passion and kiss to connote that while love is one of the best feelings in the world, it is something that is temporary, and burns out. For example, actions such as a kiss are temporary and a dream exists for just a single night and is often forgotten. In the middle 3 stanzas of the poem, readers are introduced to the fleeting nature of love. Terms such as fading, brief, and dream are utilized to connote that love itself is never truly permanent and that it is quite possible for it to fade away in time. In the last two stanzas of the poem, the author concludes that an individual that has given his all for love will unlikely do so again due the way in which such a love was lost. This can be interpreted as the author himself being unwilling to give it his all for love in the future due to some form of loss or even rejection that he experienced in a past relationship or even possible due to unrequited love.Advertising Looking for essay on literature languages? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More When examining the poem in even greater detail it can be seen that the author places a great deal of emphasis on utilizing a very concise method of delivering the message of the poem (i.e. never give your all for love) through the use of words with powerful meaning behind them. As such, instead of creating a long stream of words to deliver a message, the author relies on only a few words and has the reader interpret their deeper me aning in relation to the theme of the poem. Another interesting aspect of the poem is that it follows a distinct set of rules in its creation in that the use of rhyme as well as a very limited vocabulary set is evident. It is based on this that the poem can be considered a closed form of poetry since it adheres to a specific pattern and design in its creation. Symbolism in the Poem A more in-depth examination of the poem reveals a distinctly negative portrayal of women by the author. This is evidenced by the following stanzas: â€Å"Will hardly seem worth thinking of To passionate women if it seem†, â€Å"But a brief, dreamy, kind delight†, and â€Å"or they, for all smooth lips can say, Have given their hearts up to the play.† These parts seemly showcase love for a woman or even a woman’s interest in love as seemingly fleeting and temporary with men putting more into the relationship than woman. An immediate impression from this is that to love a woman i s to subject one’s self to the game of love which one can never truly win. You may be able to experience love, feel addicted to it but it is necessary to hold yourself back because to submit your entirety to love is to open one’s self to what the author states is a fleeting and fading dream that will inevitably disappear. Yeats connotes being in love as similar to being deaf and blind wherein due to the way in which an individual obsess and puts their love on a pedestal they tend to neglect the possibility that the person they love may not love them back in return or that they simply have lost interest. However, it should be noted that the symbolism, characterization of women and even the overall theme of the poem is not unique in the slightest. As such, when looking at the poem and thinking along this line of thought, it can be assumed that the poem is a reflection of the experience of the author wherein he loved a woman so much only to discover that it was a fleeting love since the woman either lost interest in him or turned him away. Another potential interpretation of the symbolism in the poem is that the author suffered under the effects of unrequited love and loved someone so much to the point that he was obsessed with them. Rhythm and Literary Devices Overall, the poem uses an AABB rhythm scheme starting from the 3rd stanza. Allegory is heavily utilized in various such as when the author correlates being deaf and blind to being in love.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Never Give All the Heart specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The concept of allusion is also utilized wherein the author implies that love is fleeting and brief. Such a description alludes to the way in which love can come and go which is a theme often utilized in numerous poems that deal with love. In fact, from a certain perspective it can be stated that the work of Yeast and its overall theme is far from unique to the extent that it seems to copy various bits and pieces from various works. On the other hand, it should be noted that with the sheer amount of literature that has been created that has dealt with the topic of love, this should not be surprising in the least. Conclusion Overall, I cannot state that the poem is of any considerable significance since it dwells on a theme and a topic that has been covered relentlessly by numerous poets since act of poetry started. It s based on this that I believe that the poem is a more personal work of the author, written to commemorate a point in his life where his heart was broken by love. This essay on Never Give All the Heart was written and submitted by user Willow Allen to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Integration of Heterogeneous Database free essay sample

Resource integration of heterogeneous database interoperability federated database 1. Introduction Heterogeneous database interoperability issues as a database research in the field hot and difficult issues at home and abroad, academic and industrial sectors have attracted wide attention. Since the 20th century, since the 80s, many foreign companies and research institutes to the integration of heterogeneous databases to conduct a large number of studies and achieved a lot of results, but the domestic research on the integration of heterogeneous databases is still in its early stage. The concept of heterogeneous database interoperability   Heterogeneous Databases (Heterogeneous Database) database technology integration is a completely centralized logical focus, physical distribution (traditional distributed database) as well as the logical distribution, physical distribution (heterogeneous database) the results of this development process, but also take into account existing systems self Sexual and achieve the reality of the new data-sharing needs of effective means. Heterogeneous database heterogeneous features include two levels: system level and language level, heterogeneous, mainly reflected in the following areas. We will write a custom essay sample on Integration of Heterogeneous Database or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page * Computer architecture, heterogeneous: respectively, each participating database can run on mainframes, minicomputers, workstations, PC or embedded system. * Heterogeneous operating systems: each database system is based on the operating system can be Unix, Windows NT, Linux and so on. of heterogeneous database management systems: a conceptual model of heterogeneous database. There are levels, network, relational and object-oriented 4; the other is the physical model of heterogeneous database: the conceptual model refers to the same but the data structure is different, such as the relationship between Oracle and SQL Server the same type, but the structure is different. The realization of interoperability of heterogeneous database consists of three functional elements: 1. o provide users with powerful and flexible operation of interoperable visual interface through which users can intuitively transparent access to multiple heterogeneous databases; 2. to provide high-level language database access call-level interface, as call-level interface, designers can achieve the level depending on the specific situation may be clear; 3. to support environmental and open, if possible, should also support the implementation language open. Heterogeneous database system aimed at achieving data between different databases of information resources, hardware and human resources of the combined and shared. Heterogeneous database systems integration is to a different database systems, operating systems, different operating platforms of different or the blocking of different underlying network, enabling users to heterogeneous database system can be regarded as an ordinary database system, with their own familiar data-processing language to access the database, as access to a database system, like its transparent operation. . to achieve heterogeneous database interoperability approach The face of heterogeneous database interoperability requirements, mainly from the two simultaneous efforts: First, establish standards, that is to establish a unified database of norms, standards eliminate the imperfect system resulting from the differences between various databases; second is to build interoperability of heterogeneous database platforms, achieve transparent access to multiple heterogeneous databases. With a database interoperability issues in-depth study, based on different perspectives, many researchers have put forward a viable heterogeneous database interoperability channel, these channels to achieve interoperability of the depth, breadth and height vary both in their respective to adapt to the specific environment and needs. The core idea of the database from heterogeneous starting to realize interoperable way to be summarized in two categories. 3. 1 system-level heterogeneous interoperability DBMS system for heterogeneous network environment database interoperability, the main there are four means of realization. * Database Gateway (Database Gateway) Database Gateway is a repeater; it can provide application-level integration of heterogeneous database tools. Gateways primary role is to convert and communications. Database Gateway can establish more stable and transparent database interoperability, but its shortcomings are obvious. Such as do not care about how to shield the heterogeneity between databases and does not upport transaction processing, resource redundancy, the user is limited in the database vendor cannot arbitrarily select the client platform and target database and so on. Database Gateway compared to more public agreements, scalability and openness, can better realize the transparency of heterogeneous database access, support for multiple network protocols and multiple client platforms, heterogeneous database interoperability to achieve an effective way to one. Public License / data transfer protocol drawback is that the agreement itself inefficiencies brought about by speed. * Public Programming Interface Common Programming Interface, including customer application programming interface (CAPI) and server application programming interface (SAPI). CAPI is a set of process libraries, usually resides on the client, through the back-end load specific drivers to access different databases. SAPI provides an application programming interface to control the server and client application requests and the interaction between the target database. Such as Microsoft, ODBC, Oracles SQL * NET, as well as IDAPI. Its advantages are: By providing a unified call-level interface, allowing users to remove the application database with the changes of the pain; through the API allows applications to manipulate data in the database directly. Database access APIs weaknesses are: a database for each one needs to have one with their corresponding drivers; due to different drivers supported by the data types and operations on the data are not the same as its fully transparent access to heterogeneous database capacity is limited; to achieve efficiency in over-reliance on the driver and the driver of the standard grammar into the corresponding database command syntax to spend a lot of time. Middleware is in the application and the application is located between the way the inner workings of the system software, and its basic idea is that in all the back-end data sources and front-end application to establish a layer of abstraction between. The application and system software at a lower level details of the attachment and complexity of segregation, so that application developers to deal only with certain types of a single API, and other details can be handled by the middleware. This allows the system to the operation of each of the different data sources into a single operation of the middleware, while the later pairs of middleware for heterogeneous processing. The use of heterogeneous database integration middleware technology to solve the problem, this will bring a lot of system integration benefits. This is because the middleware can not only make front-end user access to heterogeneous back-end databases to achieve transparency and to ensure the openness of the access interface, so you can make the system function in the future expansion easier. To access the database through the middleware Another advantage is that all client requests are sent to the middleware, reduce the burden on the database server to ensure that the database servers performance does not decrease. Meanwhile, the adoption of middleware greatly enhance the maintainability of the system, a logic within the system changes, as long as the change in the corresponding middle-tier processing, front user interface does not require any changes, so will be greatly reduced the system maintenance costs. 3. heterogeneous data structure and semantic-level interoperability. At present, the data structure and semantics for a heterogeneous database interoperability research are closely coupled and loosely coupled two kinds of thinking, specifically embodied in the multi-database systems, federated database systems and distributed database systems are three ways. 1. Multi-database system The so-called multi-database system is a way to accept and accommodate multiple heterogeneous database systems, allowing the various heterogeneous database of autonomy. Multi-database system is a broad concept, as opposed to, such as a centralized database systems or distributed database system that logically have the same management system for the purposes of its diversity and distribution in order for the main features. Multiple refers to the difference between its number of centralized or distributed database system; distribution refers to the data in different venues of database systems, by the respective management systems to manage. Multi-database technology, the goal is to achieve the interoperability between multiple databases, to address the resource-sharing database, to find a technical way. Commonly used distributed, heterogeneous, autonomous features as a measure to characterize the three multi-database system. Using this method, users need to explicitly specify the database to be accessed. Multi-database system uses a bottom-up methods. 2. Distributed Database (Distributed Database) The basic idea of distributed database is to abandon the original database system in a networked environment to establish the distribution of the database system, architecture, transaction processing models, and other aspects of re-engineering in order to address information sharing and interoperability issues. Distributed database system is divided into homogeneous and heterogeneous distributed database distributed database. Such as Oracle, Sybase, Informix and so on are all homogeneous distributed database system, the realization of such systems is relatively easier. Heterogeneous distributed database management systems are mostly some of the existing database management system based on the realized. 3. Federal Database (Federated Database) Federated database system is a distributed database network technology and the inevitable result of technological development, it is by a group to coordinate the work, but also the independent and autonomous component databases. It can be the original non-distributed, they can be distributed, with a distributed, autonomous, heterogeneous three characteristics. Federated database and distributed database systems are distinguished: a distributed database system while physically dispersed, but because there is a unified data model and the global data model, so it is logically centralized, so users feel is a complete database. Obviously, such systems can be used for a specific area of the system, but not suitable for different areas of integration between heterogeneous systems. On the contrary, the Federal-style database system is composed of loosely coupled at different nodes of the heterogeneous distribution of members of the database structure, among the members of the Federation as a loose combination. Constitute the members of the Federation can be a centralized database, it can be a distributed database, they can be required (by some combination of) joined the Federation, or as needed secede. Federated databases are not global schema, each subsystem (ie, the federal member) according to their own needs to develop their own data model. Data-sharing among its members, relations, through a consultation to determine the input / output mode to create a single member of the right to refuse or to allow other members of the nodes that access to it. Therefore, it can support multi-database systems are distributed, heterogeneous and autonomous, thus producing satisfactory integration. Interoperability of heterogeneous database technology makes database in the original technology to play an important role, in the future new areas of application also has important implications, such as the Earth Observing System EOSDIS, e-commerce, healthcare information systems, digital publishing, collaborative design, etc.